In 1851 deposed king Akintoye of Lagos sought British help in restoring him to the throne. The risings in the midwest of Nigeria and the Niger delta during the early stages of the war cannot be understood except in the context of falling prices for palm products, and the drop in trade due to the exclusion of the . By a British Act of Parliament, Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960. In the immediate post-World War II period, Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. [70], Lugard's immediate successor (19191925), Sir Hugh Clifford, was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the Gold Coast in 19121919. [19], West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 3040% of the demand for British cotton during the Industrial Revolution of 17501790.[27]. After 1940, political activities were broadened to include more people. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British Colonial Office in London. Lost land and independence died of diseases that euro bring Main aim. Most of these came from military backgrounds. [73] The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim. . The Native Administration was headed by the traditional rulersmostly emirs in the north and often obas in the southand their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Maji-Maji Uprising (Tanganyika) 4. Because Western education and Christianity spread rapidly in the south and not in the north, development was much slower in the north, and the growing disparity between north and south later caused political tensions. The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the Edo Empire. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined slavery and the slave trade. [73], Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of H1N1 influenza A, the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria. Battle of Adowa (Ethiopia) 5. [19] This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. (Specifically it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction.) Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the Oba of Benin, whose office was closely identified with Edo religion, was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the equity courts established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. Although the Muslim emirs eventually collaborated with the British to establish such rule in Northern Nigeria, the absence of similar authority structures in the South led to more direct colonial rule. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. In Nigeria, the British colonial administration found perhaps the longest-lasting resistance movement. [8] British influence in the region began with the prohibition of slave trade to British subjects in 1807. A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. Inteno Fiberkonverter Blinkar, Herkules Flygplan Fakta, Kraftvrme Frdelar Och Nackdelar, Infllt Mtarskp Utomhus . To prevent any united opposition to its authority, the British adopted a divide-and-rule policy, keeping Nigerian groups separate from one another as much as possible. [65], Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of Yorubaland, which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war. He shows that, long before the growth of a mass independence movement in the wake of the second world war, there was considerable opposition to colonial rule. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including H.O. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1213. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. [67], The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. vestigation of the forms of primary resistance by Africans to the impo-sition of colonial rule in the classic period of European imperialism, say from 1880 to 1914. Local administration, where the colonial citizens typically experienced colonial authority, was based on the policy of indirect rule first developed in the north. The yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. The Women's War of 1929, known among Igbo women as Ogu Umunwanyi, occurred from November 23 to January 10, 1930. Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 19001906". "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The Niger Delta and Calabar, which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. practice of indirect rule, Brown contends that culture industries like Nollywood can sustain capitalism . The forces unleashed against the British were now diverse, including soldiers who had served in World War II, the media, restless youth, market women, educated people, and farmers, all of whom became committed to the anticolonial movement. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. Divide and rule policy: This was mainly applied in areas where African societies or population had poor relations as a result of differences between their leaders or divisions created by Christian religious sects to easily defeat Africans in case of impending resistance against colonial rule. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Non-violent Resistance - In the Year of African Independence, 1961, 17 countries declared themselves independent of colonial powers, most of them non-violently, through protest and/or negotiation . The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were Henry McCallum, William MacGregor, Walter Egerton, Ralph Moor, Percy Girouard, Hesketh Bell and Frederick Lugard. [76], The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling 250,000 or more each year. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problemUnitary v. Federal Statewill probably have become clear. During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against Fascist Italy in the Ethiopian campaign. In the 1870s, therefore, George Taubman Goldie began amalgamating companies into the United African Company, soon renamed the National African Company. Each region had a governor, premier, cabinet, legislature, and civil service, with the significantly weaker federal government represented in Lagos by a governor-general, bureaucracy, House of Representatives, and Senate. Some African Christian communities formed their own independent churches. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian Federal Executive Council. [11], By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was Gombe-Abba[15] until when the then Emir of Gombe, Umaru Kwairanga (18981922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of Gombe Emirate, Modibbo Bubayero, to Nafada town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. Armed resistance decreased in the 1920s but protest continued, "characterised by civil rights and civil . The Sokoto jihad and the Yoruba wars stimulated the slave trade at a time when the British were actively trying to stop it. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. After the 1930s, political activities focused primarily on ways to end British rule. On 9 May 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. Libyan Resistance. [22] Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed Samuel Ajayi Crowther as the first Anglican Bishop of the Niger. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. Under Goldie's direction, the Royal Niger Company was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River[11]. Colonial Nigeria was ruled by the British Empire from the mid-nineteenth century until 1960 when Nigeria achieved independence. British influence in the region began with the prohibition of slave trade to British subjects in 1807. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the Igbo; the CMS worked among the Yoruba. Demanding immediate self-government, the Action Group was opposed by the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC), which was composed largely of northerners and headed by several leaders, including Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of 25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crew, for the defense of the harbor. In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. Crowther, a liberated Yoruba slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. Lugard informed the leaders of conquered Sokoto: The Fulani in old times [] conquered this country. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually over the . ", Tamuno, T. N. (1970). At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work. Namely, it possessed colonies on all continents. David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 17001891"; in Ptr-Grenouilleau. A national party, the Nigerian Youth Movement, emerged in 1934, and its members won elections to the Legislative Council. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, Heinrich Barth, who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves to protect the said King and Chiefs from the attacks of any neighbouring tribes (Ibid.). In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. The council was headed by a Governor. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. While this system had built-in contradictions, over the years the Nigerian system developed into a sophisticated form of local government, especially in the emirates and under the banner of native administration, which became the hallmark of British colonial rule in Africa. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. It was guerrilla warfare in the case of the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya (1952-60) and Zimbabwe's war of independence (1965-79); it was all . Algeria fought back and eventually was granted self rule and nigeria was put down and never got independance. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. Gandhi. In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as Governor of Hong Kong, to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. Definition of Colonialism Colonialism means a system which the Europeans adopted in ruling the colonies of Africa to their own benefits. [78], After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to wage labour. Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 18601890". At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [11][12], The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in Nigeria to the present day.[13]. Further dislocation accompanied the outbreak of World War I. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Locally this involved the immediate invasion of the German-held Kamerun (Cameroon) by Nigerian forces, followed by a costly campaign that lasted until 1916. In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. Following Lugards success in the north, he set out the principles of the administrative system subsequently institutionalized as indirect rule. Essentially, local government was to be left in the hands of the traditional chiefs, subject to the guidance of European officers. [52], The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the Northern Nigeria Protectorate, and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. Samori Ture 7. The Eastern region was dominated by Azikiwe and the Western one by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, a Yoruba lawyer who in 1950 founded the Action Group. Although per capita income in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. Updated: 11/12/2021 Create an account The principal commodities of legitimate trade were palm oil and palm kernels, which were used in Europe to make soap and as lubricants for machinery before petroleum products were developed for that purpose. For this objective, the Company chose to administer the African inhabitants of the Niger Sudan through their traditional rulers and their political institutions. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".[14]. Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the, Developments in colonial policy under Clifford, Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism, Constitutional conferences in the UK (195758), All of this section to this point is from. Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. [61] John Anderson diplomatically suggested: If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. Dike, K. O. 1. [21], Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disasterthe Great Drought of 191314. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local Efik traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. France sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain Saint-Domingue from the Haitian Revolution. [58], Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". The most powerful figure in the party was Ahmadu Bello, the Sardauna of Sokoto. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Nigeria did not come into being until 1914, when the consort of a colonial Governor-General, Flora Shaw and her man, the fascist Lord Lugard willed and named Nigeria into being, with the dubious . Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the Action Group. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were Residents and District Officers, responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the Richards Constitution. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. Author. These changes included taking land from African people and giving it to the growing number of Europeans in the colonies. Although this trade grew to significant proportionspalm oil exports alone were worth 1 billion a year by 1840it was concentrated near the coast, where palm trees grew in abundance. Internal self-government was granted to the Western and Eastern regions in 1957. [72] In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1012. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. . At that time many scholars believed that Nigeria was able to develop into a stable and fast-growing state due to its huge potential. tax. [54] Olivier was a member of the Fabian Society and a friend of George Bernard Shaw. British colonialism created Nigeria, but did little to make it a viable, stable, self-sustaining national entity. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. These policies met with ongoing resistance. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. Other Protestant denominations from Great Britain, Canada, and the United States also opened missions and, in the 1860s, Roman Catholic religious orders established missions. A new constitution was created in 1922 under British colonial rule, largely due to Nigerian calls for reform. In 1960, the country attained independence from British rule. The company's major imports to the area included gin and low-quality firearms. History of Islam in Nigeria. 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