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Methods of Calculating the Marginal Cost of Incarceration: Employment of Persons Released from Federal Prison in 2010, The predatory dimensions of criminal justice, Effect of Juvenile Justice Fee Repeal on Financial Sanctions Borne by Families, Justice-involved Individuals in the Labor Market since the Great Recession, Inmates May Work, But Don't Tell Social Security, What families can expect to be charged under the new FCC rules, Jails, Sheriffs, and Carceral Policymaking. publication in the future. [39] The significant increase in incarceration, however, was likely not necessary to achieve those gains. [41] https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/page/files/20160423_cea_incarceration_criminal_justice.pdf. Impacts of Jail Expansion in New York State: Justice Expenditure and Employment in the United States, 2003, Justice Expenditure and Employment in the United States, 2001, Locked Up: Corrections Policy in New Hampshire, Dollars, Sentences and Long-Term Public Safety, EPA helps prisons get up to speed on environmental compliance. Since 2010-11, the average annual . Errors made in the pursuit of justice add to the social costs. The operations costs per inmate per year are $7,214. better and aid in comparing the online edition to the print edition. This Notice publishes the Fiscal Year (FY) 2019 and 2020 Cost of Incarceration Fee (COIF) for Federal inmates. Almost 2 in 5 dollars spent on state and local correctional institutions went to jails. provide legal notice to the public or judicial notice to the courts. ), Justice Policy Institute; Prison Policy Initiative, February, 2015, Maryland taxpayers spend $288 million a year to incarcerate people from Baltimore City., Colorado Office of the State Auditor, January, 2015, Although statute requires CCI to operate in a profit-oriented manner, CCI's industries operations earned profit margins on average of less than 1 percent from Fiscal Years 2009 through 2014., Michael D. Makowsky, Thomas Stratmann, and Alexander T. Tabarrok, 2015, (This study finds increases in arrest rates of African-Americans and Hispanics for drugs, DUI violations, and prostitution where local governments are running deficits, but only in states that allow police departments to retain seizure revenues. Document page views are updated periodically throughout the day and are cumulative counts for this document. by the Housing and Urban Development Department Total U.S. government expenses on public prisons and jails: Growth in justice system expenditures, 1982-2012 (adjusted for inflation): Number of companies that profit from mass incarceration: Annual cost to families of prison phone calls and commissary purchases: Percent of formerly incarcerated people who are unemployed: Average daily wage of incarcerated workers: Average earnings someone loses over their lifetime by being incarcerated: To our knowledge, this is the first study to consider the joint interaction of race and class on the prioritization of carceral systems over health and social support systems., Fines and Fees Justice Center, September, 2022, Broad language in state statutes and rules often gives local governments considerable latitude in determining how much to charge. The total . This has contributed to a state legislative trend to realign fiscal resources from state institutions toward more effective community-based services, Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice, May, 2012, Counties cannot continue to oppose both budget triggers which attempt to more realistically balance DJF fees, and juvenile justice realignment, which transitions away from an archaic and dysfunctional state system to build on county successes., Council of State Governments Justice Center, May, 2012, (Comprehensive public safety plan that reduces costly inefficiencies in PA's criminal justice system and reinvests savings in law enforcement strategies that deter crime, local diversion efforts that reduce recidivism & services for crime victims. Studies estimate that between 66 percent and 90 percent of felony defendants cannot afford to hire attorneys and nearly 7,000 more public defenders are needed to adequately handle the current case load in the United States. The annual cost per inmate was highest in the state of New York at $69,355. . In 13 states co-pays are equivalent to charging minimum wage workers more than $200., [P]risons appear to be paying incarcerated people less today than they were in 2001. documents in the last year, 522 Juvenile Incarceration, Human Capital and Future Crime: Evidence From Randomly-Assigned Judges. National Bureau of Economic Research. Menu Close. The unseen costs of incarceration go beyond prison operating costs. . An appendix provides a summary of the survey's results. Some states paid far more per prisoner and some paid less. Additionally, the increasing number of prisoners puts a major strain on state budgets. Others, including South Dakota and Vermont, rarely write them., National Association of State Budget Officers, 2012, Corrections accounted for 3.1 percent of total state expenditures in fiscal 2011 and 7.5 percent of general funds., Oregon Legislative Fiscal Office, September, 2011, The Department of Correction's budget is one of the largest commitments of resources in the state budget representing roughly 9.1% of the combined General Fund and Lottery Funds in the 2011-13 legislatively adopted budget., [T]he Legal Services Corportation Budget for FY2011 was reduced an additional 3.8% half way through that budget cycle, even as the number of Americans eligible for civil legal aid was pushed by the Recession to an all-time high of 57 Million., In state-based public defender offices, 15 of the 19 reporting state programs exceeded the maximum recommended limit of felony or misdemeanor cases per attorney., Massachusetts Executive Office of Public Safety and Security, July, 2011, [A]dditional fees would increase the number of inmates qualifying as indigent, increase the financial burdens on the inmate and their family, and jeopardize inmates' opportunities for successful reentry., A number of state have scaled back mandatory sentencing policies, ARIZONA DEPARTMENT OF CORRECTIONS, April, 2011, An inmate health care cost factor is identified and deducted due to the limitations imposed by the private contractors [][because] unlike the private contractors, the ADC is required to provide medical and mental health services to inmates []., Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2011, The five states eligible to receive the largest total state allocation included California ($51.1 million), Texas ($34.0 million), Florida ($30.9 million), New York ($24.8 million), and Illinois ($18.9 million)., Collins Center for Public Policy; Florida TaxWatch, April, 2011, Little known and not well understood by taxpayers, this funding approach has saddled future generations of Floridians with over a billion dollars in debt without appreciably increasing public safety., The National Employment Law Project, March, 2011, (Too often, employers, staffing firms, and screening firms disregard civil rights and consumer protections, categorically banning people with criminal records from employment. the material on FederalRegister.gov is accurately displayed, consistent with Errors include arresting the wrong person and wrongful convictions, deaths in police custody, deaths of bystanders, and damage to property while in pursuit of an offender, among others. The United States has the highest incarceration rate. 2015. According to a 2022 ACLU report, inmates in state prisons are paid on average between 13 cents and 52 cents per hour for a "non-industry job," such as janitorial work or maintenance and repairs, which make up the majority of prison jobs. [14] Further, the aggregate figures obscure distinctions, and there are stark racial differences in the likelihood of being unemployed, as shown in the chart below. According to DOC, the average daily expenditure per inmate for fiscal year 2002-03 is $72.43. Federal Register issue. The Criminal and Labor Market Impacts of Incarceration., [47] Aizer, Anna and Joseph J. Doyle, Jr. 2013. This PDF is [51], The U.S. Constitution requires equal protection under the law, but in many ways the criminal (and civil) justice system falls short. About the Federal Register A fair and just system must provide due process, protect the rights of the innocent, and provide those protections equally to all people. That's almost as much as it costs for four years of Ivy League university tuition. [24] A recent report from the Georgetown Law Civil Rights Clinic found that at least 30 states condition reinstatement of voting rights on the completed payment of legal debt. daily Federal Register on FederalRegister.gov will remain an unofficial As of January 2012, 20,591 men had been released back into the community and 5,631 were still imprisoned., MassInc, Community Resources for Justice, March, 2013, If Massachusetts continues on the current course, the analysis contained in this report suggests the state will spend more than $2 billion over the next decade on corrections policies that produce limited public safety benefit., National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers, March, 2013, A combination of low hourly rates, fee limitations and the use of flat fees discourages attorneys from providing zealous representation and can give rise to serious conflicts of interest., Police Executive Research Forum, February, 2013, In 2010, 58% of responding agencies said that police services in their community had already declined or would decline with the implementation of recent or planned budget cuts. 2006. The true cost is undoubtedly higher., Consistent with developments that financialized the broader political economy, predatory criminal justice practices pivoted toward tools that charge prices, create debts, and pursue collections., Kentucky Center for Economic Policy, October, 2021, Some county jails rely on the economies of scale created by overcrowding including the extra revenue that comes from holding people in state and federal custody and from charging fees to those who are incarcerated., Tommaso Bardelli, Zach Gillespie and Thuy Linh Tu, October, 2021, A study by members of the New York University Prison Education Program Research Collective gives important first-hand accounts of the damage done when prisons shift financial costs to incarcerated people., Color of Change and LittleSis, October, 2021, [We] have compiled the most extensive research to date on the links between police foundations and corporations, identifying over 1,200 corporate donations or executives serving as board members for 23 of the largest police foundations in the country., Monitoring and its attendant rules significantly burden basic rights, liberty and dignity., Wesley Dozier and Daniel Kiel, September, 2021, Between 2005 and 2017, the Tennessee General Assembly passed forty-six bills that increased the amount of debt owed by individuals who make contact with the criminal legal system., Jaclyn E. Chambers, Karin D. Martin, and Jennifer L. Skeem, September, 2021, We estimate that the likelihood of experiencing any financial sanction was 22.2% lower post-repeal [in Alameda County] compared to pre-repeal, and the total amount of sanctions was $1,583 (or 70%) lower., Keith Finlay and Michael Mueller-Smith, September, 2021, While [justice-involved] groups did experience some improvement in economic outcomes during the recovery, their average outcomes remain far below even those of a reference cohort of adults, The economic exploitation that occurs with most inmate labor is doubly troubling in times of emergency or disaster, where often prisoners' health, safety, and even life is risked to ensure cost-savings on the part of governments or private industry., Despite a prevailing requirement that inmates work and despite them being forced to work under threat of punishment, inmates are not "employees" or "workers" in the commonly understood sense., Through its "surcharges", "kickbacks", and denial of basic necessities, the IDOC is effectively siphoning millions of dollars from largely low income communities by preying on people's love for their incarcerated friend or family member., A new order from the Federal Communications Commission lowers existing caps on rates and fees in the prison and jail telephone industry., Sheriffs have a unique combination of controls over how big and how full their jails are, but this role consolidation does not produce the restraint that some have predicted. PDF, 62.3 KB, . Researchers have found that employees with a criminal background are in fact a better pool for employers., The Center for Popular Democracy, Law for Black Lives, and the Black Youth Project 100, June, 2017, This report examines racial disparities, policing landscapes, and budgets in twelve jurisdictions across the country, comparing the city and county spending priorities with those of community organizations and their members., Examining local regulations and DCs labor market reveals that justice-involved peoplewhether formerly incarcerated or notface significant challenges finding work in in the city., Since 2010, 23 states have reduced the size of their prison populations. Money allocated to corrections departments in each state primarily goes toward prison operations and paying correctional officers. The Cost of Incarceration in New York State: The High Price of Using Justice Fines and Fees to Fund Government in New York. According to the state, it's different; some state costs are up to $60 million, while others spend $8 million per year. In contrast, the US government spent $602 billion on the nearly 50 million elementary-secondary students in public schools in the US in 2010, or . The perpetuation of poverty is due to a multitude of factors, including the fact that being arrested or convicted of a crime makes it much more likely an individual will lose job opportunities and thus the ability to earn legal wages. Serving economic news and views every morning. Only official editions of the the official SGML-based PDF version on govinfo.gov, those relying on it for ), Private Corrections Institute, February, 2005, Washington State Jail Industries Board, 2005, National Institute of Justice, September, 2004, New Hampshire Center for Public Policy Studies, February, 2004, Washington State Jail Industries Board, 2004, National Association of State Budget Officers, November, 2003, Families Against Mandatory Minimums, November, 2003, Middle Ground Prison Reform, September, 2003, (Arizona sentencing policy recommendations), Prison Policy Initiative, September, 2003, (charts of racial disparities in OH incarceration, and how much money is spent on education vs. prisons), Nearly 30 percent of new residents in Upstate New York in the 1990s were prisoners., Environmental Protection Agency, June, 2003, Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition, June, 2003, (compares Dell's use of prison labor with the practices of HP), Grassroots Leadership and Arizona Advocacy Network, April, 2003, (lowering prison population will ease budget crisis), Colorado Criminal Justice Reform Coalition, February, 2003, Council of State Governments, January, 2003, (has official and inflation adjusted comparison from FY 1968 to 2004), Policy Matters Ohio and Justice Policy Institute, December, 2002, (Ohio has realized considerable cost savings by using community corrections programs instead of prison), Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice, December, 2002, California HealthCare Foundation, July, 2002, large proportions of voters favored cutbacks in state prisons and corrections (46 percent)(See press release or page 4 of graphical summary. [11] The cost of foregone wages while people are incarcerated combined with the lifetime reduction in earnings after their release is estimated at more than $300 billion.[12]. Average earnings someone loses over their lifetime by being incarcerated: $500,000 +. documents in the last year, 87 lac courte oreilles tribal membership requirements; chemist warehouse justice of the peace; most hurtful things to say to someone religious persecution in germany 1800s; how to reset stanley fatmax powerit 1000a Open menu. Total. How much does the criminal justice system cost, and who pays for it? documents in the last year, 822 regulatory information on FederalRegister.gov with the objective of In fact, an estimated 10 million people owe more than $50 billion in debt resulting from their involvement in the criminal justice system., (Asset forfeiture abuses in California reveal the troubling extent to which law enforcement agencies have violated state and federal law. In 2020, the incarceration rate of African Americans in local jails in the United States was 465 incarcerations per 100,000 of the population . Access to Health Care and Criminal Behavior: Criminal Background Checks and Access to Jobs: The steep cost of medical co-pays in prison puts health at risk. legal research should verify their results against an official edition of This prototype edition of the The average annual COIF for a Federal inmate in a Residential Reentry Center for FY 2019 was $39,924 ($109.38 per day). Ultimately, imprisonment leads to reduced lifetime earnings of up to 40 percent. The Governor should then request their removal., The experience of secure confinement can change the kind of routine law-breaking that is often part of adolescence into a stable pattern that, unfortunately, endures over time. 03/01/2023, 828 [FR Doc. [8], Costs related to moving, eviction, and homelessness for incarcerated individuals and their families, as well as the reduction in property values that may result from high rates of formerly incarcerated living in a particular area are estimated at $14.8 billion.[9]. By 2014, annual deposits had reached $4.5 billion--a 4,667 percent increase., (Ohioans are getting billed up to $66.09 a day to be in jail. 00 per course; 3. tabindex="0" title=Explore this page aria-label="Show more">. The Sun Sentinel editorials argue that the problems with capital punishment are endemic across the United States but remain particularly acute in Florida, which by itself accounts for 30 of the nation's 185 death-row exonerations.The second editorial looks at the financial and moral cost of the death penalty. As arrest and conviction rates have increased and sentences for many crimes have gotten longer, the country now incarcerates more than 2.2 million people, or nearly 700 people per 100,000. establishing the XML-based Federal Register as an ACFR-sanctioned But the recent annual costs total is $182 billion to keep the prisoner. [52] Those who are able to afford a public defender, but not a private attorney, are more likely to be held in pre-trial detention and jailed. This fact makes economic mobility and post-incarceration rehabilitation exceedingly, and perhaps unnecessarily, difficult. [33], [34] The data show no correlation between the violent crime rate in a city and the frequency of police killings. In contrast, the benefits are harder to calculate. "The child didn't have a seat at the table when the decision to incarcerate the mother was made," said lawyer William Norris. documents in the last year, 662 The Public Inspection page 2019-24942 Filed 11-18-19; 8:45 am] The President of the United States issues other types of documents, including but not limited to; memoranda, notices, determinations, letters, messages, and orders. Between July 15 and August 31, 2012 at least 45 people in Cuyahoga County and 57 in Erie County were jailed for failure to pay,, Employment and Training Institute, University of Wisconsin, April, 2013, From 1990 to 2011 Wisconsin incarcerated 26,222 African American men from Milwaukee County in state correctional facilities. How well-funded are prisons and jails? This publication . Cost per individual includes statewide health service providers (org 5021) and centralized pharmacy (org 5080). Packages This repetition of headings to form internal navigation links . The cost of incarceration varies substantially Statistics based on prior month's data -- Please Note: Data is limited due to the availability of offense-specific information. [55] Being a victim of crime can cause emotional harm and lead to lost earnings, perhaps perpetuating the likelihood of remaining in poverty.[56]. Despite the significant costs, research has repeatedly shown that the impact of the high incarceration rate is small and diminishing. This paper analyzes the significant costs of the U.S. criminal justice system. Florida's incarceration rate of 720 persons per 100,000 residents is higher than the national average of 660, according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics [1], although it has decreased by 25 percent since 2014. Based on FY 2019 data, the average annual COIF for a Federal inmate in a Federal facility in FY 2019 was $35,347 ($107.85 per day). You can also see related research on our Poverty and Debt page. Florida operated facilities had a staff of 25,154 Assuming that the total number of people imprisoned in the United States was 1.2 million in 2010, the average per-inmate cost was $31,286 and ranged from $14,603 in Kentucky to $60,076 in New York. real estate practice final exam highest attendance in soccer average cost of incarceration per inmate 2020 florida. The economic drivers and consequences of mass incarceration. The annual cost, per incarcerated individual, averaged $47,057 in the 35 jurisdictions that responded to Vera's survey. [16] Further, the children of incarcerated individuals are five times more likely to go to prison themselves, compared with children whose parents are not incarcerated. 1503 & 1507. The documents posted on this site are XML renditions of published Federal California comes close, with $64,642 per each person incarcerated, but its prison population is three times that of New York. Based on FY 2018 data, FY 2018 COIF was $37,449.00 ($102.60 per day) for Start Printed Page 63892 Federal inmates in Bureau facilities and $34,492.50 ($94.50 per day) for Federal inmates in Community Corrections Centers. [11] American Bar Association. [49] Each state has a maximum compensation amount for which a victim may be eligible, which averages $25,000. for better understanding how a document is structured but Alcohol, Drug, and Criminal History Restrictions in Public Housing. Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research 15(3): 37-52. Russell Sage Foundation, New York, NY. The greatest difference in post-incarceration unemployment rates compared to the general population is for Black womena difference of 37.2 percent. headings within the legal text of Federal Register documents. The effects on economic growth extend beyond the individual incarcerated: 10 percent of incarcerated peoples children do not finish high school or attend college (nearly double the national high school dropout rate of 5.4 percent), often choosing to leave school and enter the labor force early in order to make up for the lost wages of their parent. The average cost per inmate has . According to a new report, the average cost per inmate in New York's prisons is $167,731 per year. [32], Since 2013, police have killed more than 8,260 people, a rate of 33.5 per 10 million population. We also find that economic disadvantage may condition impacts of other practical barriers, such as distance from home., (This report calculates that 27% of formerly incarcerated people are looking for a job, but can't find one. [6] https://joinnia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/The-Economic-Burden-of-Incarceration-in-the-US-2016.pdf The total burden noted here accounts for the increase in direct costs that have occurred since this study was done as well as accounts for a broader range of direct costs, as noted above. ), (Cost of Confinement shows that states spend billions to imprison youth in secure facilities, but could save money, preserve public safety, and improve life outcomes for individual youth by redirecting the money to community-based alternatives. Two states, Delaware and Hawaii, never write fiscal notes for criminal justice bills. Notably, this rate has increased by almost 50 percent during an 11 . [18], Incarcerated individuals also experience higher rates of divorce and lower rates of marriage, which is estimated to reduce economic growth by $26.7 billion and increase child welfare costs by $5.3 billion. Each document posted on the site includes a link to the on This site displays a prototype of a Web 2.0 version of the daily But history is watching us, Since 2011, jail budgets increased 13 percent--accounting for inflation--while jail populations declined 28 percent., Three out of five people incarcerated in local jails were in smaller cities and rural communities., One's status as being under correctional supervision at release from prison leads to increased debt, which in turn increases the chance of remaining under supervision during the first year out., Ilya Slavinski and Becky Pettit, January, 2021, Enforcement of LFOs varies geographically and is related to conservative politics and racial threat., Texas Public Policy Coalition, January, 2021, Even a small percentage reduction in the number of annual revocations can potentially yield millions in annual cost savings., In 2019, the 57 counties outside New York City -- which are responsible for funding their own jails -- collectively spent more $1.3 billion to staff and run their jails., Washington Corrections Watch, January, 2021, The financial and emotional burdens of incarceration are primarily borne by female family members, most especially in communities of color., Vera Institute of Justice, December, 2020, In 2018, New York state and local governments collected at least $1.21 billion in criminal and traffic fines and fees as revenue., Texas Criminal Justice Coalition, November, 2020, Texas spends the most in the nation on prisons and jails; over the past three decades, it has grown 5x faster than the state's rate of spending on elementary and secondary education., The DOC spent nearly three-quarters of a billion dollars in Fiscal 2020, a 6% increase or nearly $40 million over Fiscal 2019., A national study found that 34 New York localities are about as reliant, if not more reliant, on fines and fees revenue as Ferguson was during the period investigated., The average state cost for the secure confinement of a young person is now $588 per day, or $214,620 per year, a 44 percent increase from 2014., States and local governments have increasingly offloaded core functions of their criminal legal systems--traditionally public services--onto private corporations operating to maximize profit for their owners and shareholders., Sarah Shannon, Beth M. Huebner, Alexes Harris, et al., June, 2020, (Key trends include: the lack of transparent processes in implementing this form of punishment, the wide variation in practices and policies across jurisdictions, and the ways that noncompliance deepens legal entanglements and collateral consequences. Health care costs the state $20,367 per year per inmate, but inmates older than 50 can cost as much as $70,000 a year, due to increased medical costs. on NARA's archives.gov. A Notice by the Prisons Bureau on 09/01/2021. 03/01/2023, 205 Assistant Director/General Counsel, Federal Bureau of Prisons. What the data do show is that those who are incarcerated or who rely on the incarcerated for financial support do poorly on multiple fronts compared to those who never find themselves in prison. Analysis on the underemployment number in the monthly jobs report. The U.S. corrections system houses 1.46 million prisoners in its 1,833 state prisons, 110 federal prisons, 1,772 juvenile detention centers, and 3,134 local jails, as of 2018, according to the U.S. Department of Justice.. https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=6728, https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2020.html, http://whopaysreport.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Who-Pays-FINAL.pdf, https://joinnia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/The-Economic-Burden-of-Incarceration-in-the-US-2016.pdf, https://static.prisonpolicy.org/scans/vera/the-price-of-prisons.pdf, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23292002?seq=1, https://www.publichealthpost.org/research/incarcerations-costs-for-families/, https://measuresforjustice.org/_next/static/files/1c41bf506c73a865fd4d57807ed297bf/Incarceration_Weakens_Community_Immune_System_Preliminary_Results.pdf, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/es_20180314_looneyincarceration_final.pdf, https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/mgms/wp-content/uploads/sites/283/2015/09/incar.pdf, https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=16, https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2016/04/26/wealth/, https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5156/99b3bacf2a82ff98522675ccb3ec0ea16d6d.pdf, https://www.lac.org/assets/files/TANF_SNAP_Drug_Felony_Ban_LAC_one-pager_2.pdf, https://jjrec.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/debtpenalty.pdf, https://campaignlegal.org/sites/default/files/2019-07/CLC_CPCV_Report_Final_0.pdf, https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo18008991.html, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.515.4068&rep=rep1&type=pdf, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/522360?seq=1, https://theconversation.com/what-makes-a-criminal-friends-parents-and-their-failings-play-a-big-part-66582, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282356391_The_Unravelling_of_Identities_and_Belonging_Criminal_Gang_Involvement_of_Youth_from_Immigrant_Families, https://www.innocenceproject.org/dna-exonerations-in-the-united-states/, https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2020/06/05/policekillings/, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/page/files/20160423_cea_incarceration_criminal_justice.pdf, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/10/17/facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s/, https://sentencing.umn.edu/sites/sentencing.umn.edu/files/recidivism_among_federal_offenders_2016.pdf, https://www.nolo.com/legal-encyclopedia/restitution-law-victims-crime.html, http://www.nacvcb.org/NACVCB/files/ccLibraryFiles/Filename/000000000120/BrochureCVC1.pdf, https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/crime-victim-awareness-and-assistance-through-decades, https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/criminal-justice/reports/2016/12/08/294479/making-justice-equal/, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2014/04/28/the-unequal-burden-of-crime-and-incarceration-on-americas-poor/, https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/hpnvv0812.pdf. 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